Dr. JR MESMAC Paper ROLE OF SOUTH ASIAN ARAB DIASPORIC LITERATURE IN COLONIAL RESISTANCE: ANALYSING MAKHDUMI’S WRITINGS IN SOUTH INDIA
ROLE OF SOUTH ASIAN ARAB DIASPORIC LITERATURE IN
COLONIAL RESISTANCE: ANALYSING MAKHDUMI’S WRITINGS IN SOUTH INDIA
* Dr. JayafaraliA,
Lecturer,Department, of Islamic History, MES Mampad College Mampad
Key Words: Diaspora
Literature, Mappila Ulema, Anti-colonial resistance, Makhdums.
In any standard account of Islam and Muslim
communities in South India, especially the ‘Mappila’[i]
Muslims of Kerala receive very limited accesses in academic sphere. They have
been considered only in a peripheral way- the Muslim history in South Asia. Kerala
Muslims, who constitute 26.6% of the total population of the state, do have
their own characteristics and peculiarities that certainly distinguish them
from the other Muslims of India. The community came through various stages of
struggles for existence and identity from early period till date. After the
incursion of Portuguese, the Kerala Muslims scattered into many- economically,
socially and religiously. British Colonialism and the oppressed policies led
them to a more pathetic condition.
Mappila’s established their identity, and became a powerful community in
the southern coastal region of India, without any interruption till the arrival
of the Portuguese. Here, Islamic civilization developed, like as Sayyid Husain
Nasr observes, “into a distinct
cultural zone without destroying the local culture, but transforming it into an
Islamic reality and rejecting elements of a clearly un-Islamic nature. Its
global Islamic nature fits into the religious culture spread in the entire
Indian Ocean realms from East African coasts and South Arabia to South Indian
coastal regions and Southeast Asian nations”.
The history of militancy of Muslims in India started in 15th
century after the mooring of the Portuguese navigators on southern coasts of
Indian sub-continent. Firstly
the landing of Vasco-da-Gama in the coast of Calicut had been marked as a new
chapter in the socio-religious life of Mappilas. The religious and economic
persecutions by the Westerners was the immediate and most influential factor;
which made the Muslims of Malabar continue their animosity towards the
intruders; then the situation turned into militancy as religious resistance
against the colonialism. They contributed their health, wealth and spell completely
to oust the aggressors from their soil.
The active Ulema of Mappilas, who migrated from the
Arabian countries in various periods, played a major role in the anti-colonial
struggles. They composed many works to induce the people, and thereby started resisting
against colonial aggressors. However, the growth of Mappila resistant movements
in the medieval centuries had played a considerable role in repelling the
Western nations’ advancement in Indian subcontinent for a long time. Continuous
conflict and struggles along with hatred towards the westerners created a
notion among the Mappila mind, an unyielding opposition to the commodities of
the West. These had caused for a deep abhorrence towards English and even
towards the Western education, to quote Dr. K.T Muhammed Ali,
“The uncompromising opposition towards the British rulers who were
trying to persecute and oppress the Mappilas created in their minds as an
unyielding opposition to all things. It was this opposition that developed in
them a deep hatred towards the English language and Western education even
though the British government made several efforts to educate the Mappilas”.[ii]
Obviously, it had blocked the progress
of Mappilas, retarded the development economically, and of course caused for
extreme backwardness.
Anti-Colonial
Resistance and Religious Ideologies
Portuguese were the
first westerners who came with strategic intention of Colonialism in the
sub-continent; their attitude towards the natives, particularly the enmity and
persecution was ridiculous. Gradually, the atrocities of Portuguese sparked and
gave birth to many great resistance movements in the Indian sub-continent. The
Muslims of the Malabar were in the forefront of those, who had resisted the
Western colonialism and the colonists through their relentless struggle. They began
the fight against the suppressive colonial ideology of Portuguese since the
early years of the second decade of the sixteenth century. The Sufis, Ulama,
and the other intellectuals had found this intrusion of the west as a hard
situation faced by their co-religionists as well in the coast. The traditional
intellectuals and Ulama were in the vanguard, by instructing and inspiring the
believers, and by explaining the virtues of Jihad[iii]
and holy martyrdoms. They also had encouraged
the Mappilas to spent their wealth, health and time in the way of Allah quoting
Qur’anic and prophetic verses. The instincts of the Ulama provide them the
philosophy of revolt; the revolts are termed a Jihad which points to the efforts or the action require in
conforming to the way of God. They bestirred and made the community involved in
fighting as Jihad with their ink and letters, to advice the common folk to
corporal actions taking, arms based on the concept of Jihad by swords. Mappilas involved in each of these resistance
attempts had a wish to participate in a Jihad
and they followed a ceremonial pattern; the decision to become a shahíd. As the conflict persisted along
the Malabar Coast and the number of shahíds
multiplied and their encounters with the colonial intruders were always
characterized as “War in the way of God”.
The traditional Islamic
intellectuals, Ulama and the Syeds play an inevitable role to gear the
movements against the Europeans and the religious ideologies of these leaders had
greatly influenced in the growth of all movements of the Mappila whether it
social and nationalistic or political against the colonials. As K.K.N Kurup states,
“The religion gave them a philosophy of action and nourished their feeling
of antagonism…”[iv]
The causes of the conflict are not fully
religious but a religious cohesive society like Mappilas is not necessarily
free religious in nature, the confrontation with the aggressors in Malabar not
only protection of religion but a materialistic also which means a struggle for
economic survives in its main aspect. However, the growth of the resistance
movements of the Mappilas in the medieval century had played a considerable
role in repelling the Western advents in Indian subcontinent for long
centuries. As the opinion of Lakshmi Subramanian, “it was only in Malabar
that anti-opposition was most sustained and articulate”.[v]
The resistant movements of Mappilas were highly instrumental and helpful to
check the cultural dominance of the Europeans to a considerable extent in
Indian sub-continents without much infringement to the native cultures.
The virtue of martyrdom
and the expectation of reward of the endless bliss of Jannat have been the most
motivated factor of Mappila confrontation. The common tradition of the period
is that the verses from Quran and the Hadith had cited and projected the
rewards of martyrdom from Allah by the leaders to encourage the resurgence. As
a religious community, Mappilas believed that any fight against intruders was a
religious duty and death in an encounter was treated as martyrdom.[vi] The theological incentives ignited the desire
of Shahíd among the common folks. The propagation of such Jihadist ideology was
not in a fanatical mode of the Muslims; within inspiration of rewards, is
attracted them but their struggles in life compelled them to resist and rise
against the enemies of their religion and region.
Literary contributions of
South Asian Mappila Ulema in Anti-Colonial resistance
The preaching and
writing of the traditional intellectuals, highly influenced the Mappila
community in their socio-religious sphere, which was to promote a perpendicular
alliance between the Mappila deprived and their affluent co-religionist; thus
modifying the class antagonism of peasantry by means of Islamic ideology. The
eminent religious scholars of Mappila have given a call for Jihad against these colonial represents
and they composed many works in Arabic and regional dialects. For instance the
prose works like, “Tuhfat al Mujahidín fi
baa’di Ahwal-al-Burthugalliyun” (Offering to holy worriers in respect of
some of the deeds of the Portuguese) Zainuddin bin Muhammad al Gazzali commonly
known as Makhdum II, “Al Khuthbathul-al- Jihadiyyah” (The Holy
war Sermon), Qadi Muhammed bin Abdul Aziz, Mamburam Syed Alavi Tanghal author
of “Assaiful Bathaar Alaman Uwalil
Kuffar” ( The sharp sword on those who take unbelievers as protectors), and
his son Syed Fazal bin Alawi author of “Uddathu-al-
Umara wal Hukkaum li Ihanath al Kafarat wa Abdat al Asnam” (Preparation to
Judges and Leaders to undermine the Idolaters and Unbelievers) and the poems like “Tahríz Ahlil Iman Ala’ Jihadi Abdat al Sulban”(Incitement for
believers on fight against the Worshippers of Cross), Sheikh Zainuddin bin Ali
Al Makhdum, “Al Fathul Mubeen” (The
Manifest victory) by Qadi Muhammed, and Umar Qadis Risalath Shieriyyath” (Verse
Message) were the notables among them. These works had a strong appeal against
the foreign intruders; and Ulamas and Khutbs were the advocates of fight. At
the same time, they enjoined the folks to participate in the Jihad against the
enemy which has a religious obligation. This paper mainly focuses on the
contribution of Makhdums of Ponnani, in line of the above mentioned works- into
the resistant literature which produced in the colonial centuries.
Makhdum’s the Pioneering
Proponents of Anti-Colonial Movements in India
The Makhdum family who
served the Muslim society, with their unique erudition and leadership for
almost six centuries starting from 15th century, is a unique part of Muslim
History in India. They were reputed for their erudition, piety, dedication, and
commitment to cause of knowledge. The
root of the Makhdum family seems to be a descendant from Yemen belonging to an
Arab tribe. The Makhdum suffix the title “Maa’bari” with their names. The forefathers
of the Makhdums, the family descended from Shaykh Ahmed al Maa’bari, the
brother of Ali Muhammed al Makhdum, migrated to Kayal Pattanam and Coromandal
coasts of Tamil Nadu from their motherland; and the region was known to the
Arabs as Maa’bar. Later the family
shifted its center to Cochin in early ninth
century when Ahmad al Maa’bari settled there. The first among the Makhdums to
arrive at Ponnani was Shaykh Zainudheen Ibrahim bin Ahmad al Maa’bari, who was
a renowned Islamic scholar of the time and a paternal uncle of the Makhdumi. He
was appointed as the qazi there in 5th century. After the arrival of Zainudheen
Ibrahim al Maa’bari to Ponnani, the place was considered as the center of
Muslim religious activities and became a major religious educational center
which flourished from the very inception of Islam especially in the medieval
period. The advent of the Makhdums and their activities made Ponnani a centre
of Muslim learning and later it started to be called as ‘the little Mecca of
Malabar’.
After the completion of
his study from the native teachers, Zainudhin Sagir started his search for
wisdom from the Islamic centers and visited Mecca, Madina, Egypt and acquired
specialized knowledge in various subjects like Tafsir, Hadith and Tasawwuf, etc. After his long stay and study from the
famous institutions in Middle East, Makhdum I settled in Ponnani and formed a
world class Islamic institution there. Within a short time, it became a chief
traditional religious educational center of Muslims in Kerala, with a worldwide
reputation attracting theologians even from West Asia. At his time, Shaykh was the head of the
community in socio-religious matters and he held the authority in appointing
Imams and Mullas (religious teachers). These ulama are trained from the
“Ponnani Baliya Palli Dars” (Grand Mosque Institution) tutored by Shaykh
himself, and later served as quazis in mosques and officiate all religious
ceremonies. Zainudhin’s Makhdum’s role among the Malabari society finds in the words
of R.E Miller,
“The
most important training school for the production of Musliyar or Moulavis
(religious teachers) as they are now termed, was the Shaikh Makhdum institution
at Ponnani. Said to have been founded in twelfth century or earlier, it reached
the peak of its fame under the leader ship of Shaykh Zein-ud-Din ibn Shaikh Ali
(1467-1521); known as “the senior Makhdum” he wrote many religious treaties.”
Makhdum I composed many
works in various subjects like Fiqh, Sufism, Arabic grammar and history etc.,
in Arabic, which consists of both prose and poetry. Some of his works are,
Murshid al- Thullab Ila Kareem al Wahaab, Siraj al Qulub-wa-Ilaj al Dhunoob,
Irshad Ul-Qasidín, Hidayathul Adhkiya Ila Tariqat al Awliya which are commonly
known as “Adhikiya”, is the most important Sufi work in Arabic produced in
Kerala considered a manual of Sufism in Malabar”. And this great Malabari
Scholar died in A.H 928 (A.D 1521-22) at Ponnani and was buried in the
graveyard of Ponnani Baliya Palli which was erected by the great scholar
himself.
Thahríz:
The first Manifesto of Anti-Colonial ideologies in South Asia
It was the during the
life time of Makhdum I, the Portuguese stepped into Malabar Coast. The
atrocities by the Portuguese to the Muslim had touched in the mind of Shaykh
and he rose against the frightful condition which was being faced by his natives.
Thus Shaykh started a soloist fight with his pen and pulpit against the
colonials. Through works he called the neighboring Muslims to lead a holy war or
to support Zamorin, the non-Muslim ruler of Malabar, in arming against the
humiliation and distressed conditions being created by the Portuguese. As
describes C. Gopalan Nair,
“After his arrival at Ponnani he sent some
letters and books to Arabian kings to seek the help from them to support the
Kerala king especially the Zamorin and upon his letters from the Arabia many
ships and soldiers came to fight against the Portuguese and spread the religion
in the land.”[vii]
Zainudhin’s work, “Tahríz
Ahlil Iman Ala’ Jihadi Abdat al Sulban”[viii],
was completed in around second decade of 16th century. The poem was the first
Indian attempt to resist the colonial invaders by the letters. Also it was the prime
call to resist the aggressors by a Muslim leader or a religious scholar in
India. Tahriz was a resistance poem filled with patriotic feelings in the mind
of the Mappila fighters. Centuries before such poems introduced in Indian
independence struggles. This was the
first one such categories called resistance poem written in Arabic language
ever in India, and considering as the proto manifesto of the Indian resistance
movements.
In his poem, Zainudheen
Makhdum I induced the faithful to undertake a Jihad against the evil Crusaders
and to save their homeland. Further, he reminded the Mappila community that it was
their duty to do so as a part of their belief. The poem was consisting of 135
lines composed in perfect rhythm and written in Arabic language. In its first
stanza, the poem starts in the name of Allah and praising Prophet (PBUH). On
the following lines the poet depicts the atrocities of Portuguese to the
inhabitance of southern coasts of India as;
“We have been grieved due to the atrocities
of the Portuguese, who worship the cross and icon… They committed diverse
outrages on Malabar and caused many hardship and trails”.
Also it put many
samples of the viciousness of Portuguese on Muslims in Kerala,
“Through
slavery, plunder, setting the mosques afire tearing the Holy Quran, disgracing
the sanctity…devastating the countries, enslaving the faithful Muslims and
fielding their women in attractive attires to entice Muslim women…They killed
the pilgrims and other believers by all kind of torture and mutilation…They
flogged and cut the tongues of those who pronounced the holy Apostle and openly
abused Messenger of God. Captive were kept in heavy fetters and ruthlessly
tortured with fair, beaten on their faces with sandals, locked in narrow cells
like a wretched animals.”
It could be considered as
a description of eye witnesses of the historical accounts of the sixteenth
century Portuguese atrocities. Through his descriptions, the poet made an
attempt to induce the believers against the intruders, explaining the benefit
of the martyr in life after death.
Moreover, the lines gave awareness regarding Allah’s punishment to the
believers for being in terms with the Portuguese to have timely benefits. And,
he prompted the believers who neglected the holy war against the Portuguese, by
quoting from Quran and tradition of Prophets.
Shaykh Zainudheen
attracted the major part of the community against colonial aggressors with his
dedicated religious ideas. The poem Tahríz had promoted a fighting psycho among
the Mappilas to wage a popular war against the foreigners for the first time. On
the byproduct of such incites the Mappila revivalism reached in its zenith in
later periods like the sea-resistance of Kunjali Marakkars and other fighters.
Through his poem, Shaykh Zainudheen Senior urged the faithful to protect the
religion and country with their relentless struggle. In this tradition, he
helped raising a jihadist spirit in the Mappila against the Portuguese which
could find from the martyr of Kunji Marakkar which traced in Kotturpalli Mala.
The treaty had a tremendous effect up on the later resistance movement oppressions.
Similarly, the main ideology behind the poem was to promote the social
philosophy of martyrdom and resistance for the faith and land.
Shykh Zainudheen II the
first South Asian MappilaHistorian
Zainudheen Makhdum II
was the first son of famous scholar Shaykh Muhammed al Gazzali, the third son
of Zaindheen I. After his initial education at home from the mouth of his
scholarly parent, Zainudheen Junior enrolled at the Ponnani Juma Masjid Dars
for his higher education. After the completion his education in Kerala,
Zainudheen II set out to Mecca for his hajj and further study. After spending
his 10 years study in Masjid ul Haram and receiving Ijazahs from a number of
eminent scholars of the time in various subjects, he returned to Ponnani to
carry on the light of knowledge lit by his grandfather Makhdum I. He taught at
the little Mecca of Malabar for 36 years, and wrote a lot of books in different
subjects like, world famous Shafi’ school of Jurisprudence writing
Fathual-mu’een-fi-Sharahi-Qurratil ‘Ain in 1574, Ahkham al Nikah, and the fatwa
collection in Malabar Al Ajwibat Al Ajiba an Asgh’alal Arabiyyah, etc.
Tuhfat:
the first anti-colonial accounts in Indian sub-continent
Zainudheen Junior was
another instrumental in starting of the five century long Anti-colonial
struggle in India, as he wrote extensively against Portuguese cruelties as well
as induced the public for waging battles against the colonizers in defense of
their faith, dignity and freedom of the land. He wrote accounts of the
Portuguese aggressiveness against the Malabaris and also repeated the verdict
of Jihad like his gramps. Makhdum II compiled the great work “Tuhfat al
Mujahidin Fi Baa’di Ahwal- Burthugaliyyeen”[ix],
in A.D 1580/81. It was the first authentic work on history of Kerala written by
a native which deals with the period of about eight decades from Portuguese
arrival up to A.D 1583. The account describes Portuguese vandalism carried out
in Malabar which was a unique work of great historical importance for the
Indian sub-continent and description of the customs of the locals and the
cordial relation of Muslims with the king and the prosperity of the kingdom.
The significance of Tuhfat is that it is not a conventional historical text in
the conservative or courtier tradition. As J.B.P More observe,
“The
Sheikh was not a court historian or chronicler as we find in the Mughal courts
and the Sultanates of the Deccan or Northern India. Instead his work was an
individual attempt to retrace the history of Malabar and its Muslims
particularly. It was also an attempt to describe the geography, social and
economic conditions and the cultural and religious factors of Malabar.” [x]
From the four parts of
the work, the first chapter deals the subject Jihad, which was justifying on frequent
quotes from the Qura’n and Hadith to explain the reward of the martyrs. The second part traced on the advent of Islam
in Malabar and the development of Muslim settlements in South India. As the name
signifies the Tuhfat is a call to Jihad against the onslaughts of disbelievers
from the West to defend the religion of Allah. The work repeated the verdict of
holy war, is not being made simply in religious term, although the author
dedicated his to the entire part for a selection of evidences like Quran, tradition
of the Apostle and events from early battles of Islam. Moreover, he urges a
Jihad with the Portuguese as an obligatory duty, which were clearly shows in
the following comments of the author,
“I
have under taken composition of this account with the intention of giving
inspiration on the faithful to undertake a Jihad against the cross worshipping Portuguese…waging a
holy war has become an obligation of all individual Muslims as the Portuguese
has invaded and occupied the Muslim abode.”
On the above lines of
Shaykh drawing an attention of the readers to the cotemporary political
situations; in first it shows that the ruler of the coastal state who has an
infidel, but strongly supported Muslims who lived under his supremacy. Meanwhile
the author does show the Muslims rulers who could not take any interest in protection
of the life and dignity of their fellow believers. With his own words, Shaykh
states that, not only the religion but the patriotic feelings of a Malabari
Muslims are an inspiration for the fight against the Portuguese. The Mappila
did their best with the support of native powers to away the colonials from
their home towns. This tradition of their brave fight continued until to drive
out the Western imperials from Indian lands.
The two leading
intellectuals of Mappila community were pragmatic and they tried to inspire the
fellow men in the best way to fight against the suppressing authorities. The
resistance ideology of the Muslim traditional intellectuals had strongly
influenced the India’s national level freedom strikers from the Kerala; and
moreover, they instigated the aggressed fellows for a perpetual Jihad as a
retort to the policy of foreign intruders and their local supporters.
Concluding remarks
The paper can be conclude
in these remarks, through the colonial periods, started from the succession of
‘Gama Voyages’, the Muslims in Kerala named Mappilas faced a high handed
atrocities and persecutions from the
Colonial invaders. In these rivalry of the crusaders extremely spoiled the
peaceful life and wealth of the natives and it has leaded the religious fellows
to face a terrible condition and they are compel to fight for survives.
Definitely, these resistant movements become much more powerful up to the
anti-colonial character and caused the carving of the resistant history of very
long time. Throughout these periods the socio-religious leaders have
revitalized society and brought the changes in the social and political sphere.
In spite of their religious teaching and preaching of religious harmony and
human solidarity, they were compelled to profess and organized life long
struggle or Jihad against the Colonials to safeguard their beliefs and their
fellow religionists. Under the Western colonialism, the Mappila intellectuals
tried to fulfill their responsibility of preparing the fellow beings against
the cultural hegemony of the colonials. Moreover, they had aggressively induced
the community for a Jihad with the spiritual influences and cognitive talents
against the intruders. They started to write certain texts as they felt it was
their duty to protect their land and identity of the people as a
responsibility.
The writing and
teaching of the Makhdum’s had been used to make aware the community about the
socio-religious as well as political impact of the colonial intrusion in
Malabar. And, the after effect of their thoughts and work were promotes the
Mappilas in starting the resistance against these aggressiveness. The
leadership qualities of the period hold that the spiritual approach of the
Muslim traditional intellectuals who migrated from the Arabian countries should
have been capable to handle the social issues which is timely effect the
country and community rather than just annexing and delimiting with the mosques;
alongside call for religion as well as ideology driven Jihad. It is quite proven
that the ideological backup they had given to the society had been profoundly
influential in the anti-colonial movements which started from the 16th century.
All those initiations laid a strong basement of the later endeavors of socio-religious
advancement in the life of the Mappilas.
[i]
Kerala Muslims commonly known as Mappila. Origin of the community was a result
of the union of Arab trading community with the Kerala women. The term Mappila
was the conjunction of the words Maha and Pillai (means great son) or Ma-pillai
(mother son) etc. The name firstly called by 16th century Portuguese navigator
Barbosa in his travelogue.
[ii]
K.T Mohmmed Ali, The Development of Education among the Mappilas of Malaber,
1800-1965, Nunes Publishers, New Delhi, 1990, p. 185.
[iii]
The word jihad (Holy war) means in Arabic ‘to strive’ or ‘to exert’ and ‘to
fight’. Which can explains as an aggression against the non-believers for the
purpose of propagation of religion or exacting tribute. But the word doesn’t
directly signify warfare, animosity or fighting. The Arabic usage of the word
war or fight is harb or qital the core concept of Jihad is neither physical nor
violent. The inner exertion of the individual to improve himself and his
society for moral discipline termed as Jihad al Akbar. And Jihad al Asghar
defining the legitimate political and military action with the intimate enemy,
the self-subjected to the temptation of devil.
[iv]
K.N Kurup, William Logan: A Study in the Agrarian Relation of Malabar,
Calicut, 1981,p.37
[v]
Lakshmi Subramanian, p.72
[vi]
K.K.N Kurup, The Legacy of Islam (Kerala): A study of the Mappilas of Kerala,
Samayam Pubications, Kannur, 2006,p.52
[vii]
C. Gopalan Nair, ‘Malayathile Mappilamar’ (Mappilas in Malayalam), Manglore, 1917p. 45.
[viii]
Incitement for believers on Fight against the worshippers of Cross
[ix] Offering to holy warriors in respect of some
of the deeds of the Portuguese
[x]
J.B.P More, Origin and early history of the Muslim Kerala 700 AD-1600 AD,
Other Books, Calicut, 2010, p. 121.
അഭിപ്രായങ്ങള്