Dr. Jayafarali
.Alichethu
Faculty, DGMMES Mampad College
Introduction
The historically misapprehended culturally differenced ‘Mappila’[i]Muslims
of Kerala are a little known community in Indian subcontinent, though ‘Malabari’[ii]
is more familiar in the Islamic world. Since the dawn of Islam in Arabia in the
7th century A.D, the believers carried on the proselytization and
the promulgation of the religion along with their maritime activities in
different parts of the world. The Muslim community steadily arose in Kerala
over centuries through these maritime ties, initially the religious conversion
and nuptial alliance of the Arab traders with the native women in the coast.
The migration of the Arab Sayyeds and Sufis to the south-western coasts of
India triggered a rapid change in the Muslim community of the land. The
settlement of the Sayyid families from the Arab world in early centuries moulded
a virtuous Arab settlement in South India.
Before proceeding let me define our term diaspora, in its wider sense is
defined as “ethnic minority groups of migrant origin residing and acting in
host countries or regions, but maintaining strong sentimental and material
links with their countries of origin”. The term used to refer to any group of
migrants and their descendants who maintained a link with their place of
origin”.[iii]The
concept of ‘trade diaspora’ was introduced by Abner Cohen in 1971 to describe the
interrelated commercial network of ‘nation of socially interdependent, but
spatially dispersed communities’[iv]The
question of identity maintenance is very debatable in contemporary literature
on the Arabian Diasporas around the Indian Ocean because the Hadramis
themselves have maintained a dual identity based on relative degree of their
assimilation into the host societies and preservation of some of their cultural
values and biological descent.
SayyidFaridAlatas discerns the Hadrami[v]
diaspora around the Indian Ocean as “transnational, not ethnic, but was based
on kinship and its locus was nasab (lineage) which formed the basis of a
uniquely Hadrami type of asabiyya (family spirit)”. The main impetus to Muslim
settlement came from the merchants of the Persian Gulf and Oman, with a
minority from Hadaramouth. There appear to be two major differences from the
Jewish Diaspora and the Muslim settlement. There was no hankering for a
homeland or a promised land, which characterized the Jewish Diaspora. Muslims in
Malabar Coast maintained their distinctive faith, but otherwise were part of
the Malabar people. In Malabar, the fate of the Arab-Muslim communities was
very different from that of those in other part of India. Since they were never
exposed to northern conquest they could retain their Arab imprint through the
ages.
Arab trade
Diaspora in India: A Retrospect
Unlike the Romans, the Muslim traders who came to South India settled
down permanently. The community which developed here and which later became
known as the
Mappilas of Malabar.The Arab world as well as India was the cradles of ancient civilization for near about 6000 years ago. The Nile Delta civilization of Egypt, the Euphrates River civilisation in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization in India were not only contemporaneous, but were also in close contact with one-another[vi]. Indian and Arab civilizations had interacted with each-other and have drawn inspiration from each-other. The Indo-Arab trade relations date back to the third millennium B.C.[vii]The Arabs who held the monopoly of the inter-continental trade (Asia, Europe and Africa) in the ancient as well as the medieval times had been visiting the coastal cities of India, Ceylon and China and all Islands scattered over the vast ocean long before the rise of Islam.[viii] Besides Indian products, Indian philosophy and religion have been of interest to the travellers throughout the ages. A large number of Arabic words on Indian origin show the antiquity and consistency of Indo-Arab trade. Even in Holy Quran three words of Indian origin, i.e., misk, (musk), zanjabil (ginger), and kafur (camphor)are used.[ix]The coast and Islands of India have always attracted Arab merchants and travellers who undertook the voyages mainly for the sake of trade. So the commercial routes and the sea-coasts of India well known to the Arabs long before the inner parts of India became accessible to them.[x]
Mappilas of Malabar.The Arab world as well as India was the cradles of ancient civilization for near about 6000 years ago. The Nile Delta civilization of Egypt, the Euphrates River civilisation in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization in India were not only contemporaneous, but were also in close contact with one-another[vi]. Indian and Arab civilizations had interacted with each-other and have drawn inspiration from each-other. The Indo-Arab trade relations date back to the third millennium B.C.[vii]The Arabs who held the monopoly of the inter-continental trade (Asia, Europe and Africa) in the ancient as well as the medieval times had been visiting the coastal cities of India, Ceylon and China and all Islands scattered over the vast ocean long before the rise of Islam.[viii] Besides Indian products, Indian philosophy and religion have been of interest to the travellers throughout the ages. A large number of Arabic words on Indian origin show the antiquity and consistency of Indo-Arab trade. Even in Holy Quran three words of Indian origin, i.e., misk, (musk), zanjabil (ginger), and kafur (camphor)are used.[ix]The coast and Islands of India have always attracted Arab merchants and travellers who undertook the voyages mainly for the sake of trade. So the commercial routes and the sea-coasts of India well known to the Arabs long before the inner parts of India became accessible to them.[x]
The rise of Islam, however, ushered in a new era in the Indo-Arab
relations. The penetration of Islam into India by persuasion had long before it
was in a position to use force. Indian
ethos has liberally accommodated other faiths which penetrated the subcontinent
at different points of time in history. The
geographical contiguity of Arabia to the traditional coast of Malabar by sea
had made her an effective partner in a flourishing sea-born trade through
centuries. In early periods, Kerala held an important position on the trading
map of the ancient world. They did not
enter as conquerors or rulers and they were never seen as aggressors. Thus the
history of Muslims in Kerala is very different from that of Muslims in the
North[xi].
Not only the political hegemony and tradition of the latter, but also
its emotional tenor, theological growth, and cultural heritage passed the
Mappilas by. The original relationship with Arabia, on the other hand,
continued and grew, and that intercourse has gone on into modern times. The Arab
affinity has affected and continues to affect the language, religion and
culture of the Mappilas more profoundly than those of any other Indian Muslims
do.
In contrast to all other parts of
Indian Muslims, who belong to the Hanafi sect, Kerala Muslims observe the
Shafi’i school of law, which was and still is the predominant madhab in
the Muslim communities throughout the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asian region.
According to S.F. Dale,[xii]
the study of Malayali Muslims offers a relevant guide to understanding certain
facets of South East Asian Islam during the European period. The ecology of
Kerala is itself more nearly similar to South-East Asia than most regions of
the South Asian subcontinent, and in terms of their Arab-derived Islamic
culture and long history of conflict with European powers, Malayali Muslims are
more nearly similar to several of the Islamic communities of South-East Asia,
which originated as trading settlements.
Islamic
Community and its Developments on the Southern Coasts
When the Arab traders settled here, the local rulers were extremely
helpful and hospitable to them. The Zamorin of Calicut, who was one of the
chief patrons of Arab trade, is said to have encouraged conversion to Islam.
Most of the travelogues had praised the remorseful honesty showed by the king.
In order to man the Arab ships on which he depended for his aggrandisement, and
to have ordered that every family of fishermen in his dominion one or more of
the male members should be brought up as Muhammedance.[xiii]
The member of the Hindu community maintained a very friendly relationship with
Muslims. There was no bar for willing members to embrace the new religion in
the land.
Malabar was the most conservative part of southern India where the cast
system was in its full form. The vast mass of low and down-trodden community in
Kerala such as Cherumas, Pulayas, Pariah, Mukkuvas, etc. could not come closer
to upper class but they had to keep certain distance called Ayitham.[xiv]
Thus the conversion to Islam gave to low caste a new status. The universal
brotherhood of man preached and practised by Islam was an unusual experience
for the down trodden beings. Not only would Mappila treat them with equality
but in their new social position Mappila forcefulness would compel their formal
masters to deal with them in a new way.[xv]
The most significant reason behind wide acceptances of Islam in the land was
the social and economic backwardness of the native tribes who had been living a
life of slavery under the rigid yoke of the high class Hindus for many
centuries. The moment they got converted, they were able to forget their stigma
and acquire a ‘vitalizing social status always tantamount to equality with
others.[xvi]
Malik Bin
Dinar: A Pioneering Arab Proselytizer in Malabar
Analysing the various historical perceptions, it is generally assumed
that though Islam arrived in Kerala as early as fifth Hijrah year, the
formation of a Muslim community started after Malik Bin Dinar and his group
landed in port of Muziris (Cranganore or Kodungalur) in 21 AH (641 AD). One can
easily assume that the initial missionary group of Malik Bin Dinar and his
companions would have engaged in educating the new entrants about the religion.
In fact, most of the important
Sufi Thareeqas that led a spiritual revivalism in the Islamic world starting
from the deteriorating phase of its golden period had reached Kerala and
attracted many people. Besides, according to one opinion, Malik Bin Dinar, the
first missionary leader arrived in Kerala, was a disciple of the famous Sufi,
Hasan al-Basari who died in 130 AD. However, only scanty information is
available about the Sufi activity in Kerala during the early period, and the
available Arabic works, being mainly on theology, have completely ignored their
ideologies and activities. This has made scholars like I.H. Qureshi to assert
that, “the extensive Sufi missionary activity found elsewhere in Indian Islam
is not evident in South India”.
The group established the first
mosque in India at Kodungallur.[xvii]Later
they travelled north and south of the state and attracted a number of locals to
the new religion within a small timeframe through entirely peaceful means, and
set up mosques in different parts of the state like Quilon, Chaliyam,
Pantalyini, Dharmadam, Srikantapuram, Madayi, Kasarkod Mangalore and Barkur.
According to RihlatulMilūk, they had built about 18 mosques in places between
Quilon in South and Mangalore in North. At all the places, they appointed a
q̄azi and Imam to lead the prayer, mediate in the social matters of the newly
emerged community as well as to engage in educational activities. It is notable
that all the nine places where mosques were erected were either the
headquarters of the petty potentates of the country or places affording
facilities for trade. Arabs engaged in trade had no doubt settled in these
places long previously. Malik Bin Dinar and his party, even with the
exceptional advantages they possessed, would hardly have been able in so short
a time to found and establish mosques at these places, unless the ground had
been prepared beforehand for them to some extent at least. And the fact that
Arabs had settled for trading purposes carries with it the further probable
assumption that some of them at least had contracted alliances with women of
the country, and the beginning of a mixed race, the Mappilas, had been
laid.
Scholastically Arabs and the Wisdom of Mappila community
Muslim education is in a sense as old as their faith in religion. The
very first surah of Qur’an was revealed to Prophet (PBUH) with the message,
“Read in the name of Lord who created man from a clot of blood.” (Holy Qur’an:
96-1, 2). It is a historical fact that the Muslims had been the torch-bearers
of knowledge during the Middle Ages between 6th century to 15th
century. In Kerala, the early Arab missionary delegation not only built mosques
but also prepared the primary facilities needed for the upbringing of an
Islamic community at each of the places. Each and every mosque stood as
learning centres in the same way Prophet’s mosque in Madina did. In addition to
this, gradually there formed a group of students in each mosque, who were
dedicated to specialise in Qura’n, Hadith and related Islamic subjects in order
to carry out further propagation activities. Missionaries and religious
teachers taught adults and Muslim youths Arabic and Islamic studies. Detailed
and explorative studies about the early mosques built in Kerala can shed more
lights on the content, curricula and organisation of the religious educational
system in this initial period. Sources clearly point out the existence of many
higher education centres in early Kerala mosques, especially in the coastal
cities. Highly qualified teachers had attracted hundreds of students to Mosque
schools they held in masjids of Kodungallur, Quilon, Calicut, Ponnani, Chaliyam
and Tanur. Traces of their history in its early periods seem difficult. It is
said that a mosque school more than eight hundred years old was held in
the ValiyaKulangaraPalli at Tanur, where eminent scholars from Yemen,
Egypt, Hadharmouth, Hijaz had conducted classes.
Emerging Arab Diaspora in Malabar
After the traders, the Sufis themselves migrated to Malabar as has been
noted. The Arabs who settled on the Malabar Coast are those of different
Arabian lands. They are never recluses or ascetics; they engaged in their
profession and took service to man as on injunction of Sufism. Traditional
history talks about a number of eminent scholars or scholarly families who
migrated to Kerala from across the Islamic world like Makkah, Madina,
Samarqand, Bukhara, Yemen, Kufa, Basra and Constantinople, and engaged in
Islamic propagation activities as well as ran prestigious educational centres
at different Kerala mosques. Around 30 SayyedQabilas had reached Kerala from
different parts of the Islamic world, mainly from Yemen and Bukhara. Malabar
Muslims as well as non-Muslim rulers of Kerala received them happily and, in
most cases, they were gifted lands and houses. Many rose to the fame through
their leadership qualities as many of them were big scholars, sheikhs or
Mureeds of Sufi thareeqas, or influential and pious umara.
The indigenous Muslim society also produced a number of legendary scholars who
travelled to the premier learning centres of the medieval Islamic history like
Mecca, Medina, Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo where they met eminent scholars of
the time, studied great Islamic literature and took part in the development of
religious education back home
The scholarly families from Arab countries used to come here frequently
and settled in Malabar. They
were especially from the ‘AhlulByth’
(descent from the family of Prophet (PBUH)) known as ‘Thangals’ in Kerala, namedlike
‘Shihab’s’, ‘Jifri’s’, ‘Aydaroos’, ‘Ba faqih’s, ‘Ba Alavi’s’, ‘Jamalullai’lis’,
‘Alubar’amis’,’ Aideeds’, ‘Muqaibils’, ‘Musaavas’, ‘Mash’hoors’, ‘AluSilli’,
‘AluSathiri’, ‘AluHabshi’, ‘Haddadis’, ‘Saq’qafis’, ‘AlulHadi’ and
‘MoulaDhaweela' etc. Some of them were entrusted with the Islamic
propagation and lead the Mappilas communities in all facets. Many families
settled in Kerala in different periods, but unfortunately very rare details are
available historically about them.
Socio-Cultural contribution of Arab scholarly Lineage to the Mappila
life
Even mentioning of the Kerala Islamic history is unable without
remembering the Makhdum family who served the Muslim society with their unique
scholarship and leadership for almost five centuries starting from 15th
century. The roots of the Makhdum family were in Maʹbar, in Yemen. The family
descended from Shaykh Ahmed Mabʹar, the brother of Ali bin Muhammed Makhdum,
who migrated to Kayalpattanam, a coast in Tamil Nadu,from Yemen. The family arrived at Cochin in the early ninth century..[xviii]
After completion of his higher education which was available in Kerala,
Zainuddin Makhdum I, son of Ali Makhdum, started his journey for seeking the
knowledge in different Islamic states like Mecca, Medina, and Egypt and
acquired specialised knowledge in various Islamic subjects like Tafsir, Hadith
literature and Tasawwuf, etc. On his return from the Arab world, Zainudheen
settled in Ponnani and erected a ‘Jama Mosque’ and set up a world-class Islamic
learning centre there.[xix]Arabic
language as well as literature is being taught here from primary level to the
research level. The advent of the Makhdums Ponnani came to be known as the
‘Little Makkah of Malabar’ and Zainudheen I is highly esteemed as the founder
of the great seat of Arabic learning at Ponnani.[xx]
He has written a number of books in
Arabic including Murhsid al-thullab (ﻣﺮﺷﺪ ﺁﻟﻄﻸﺏ), HidayathulAdhkiyaIlaTariqat al Awliyaﺍﻷﻮﻠﻴﺄ) ﺇﻻﻄﺮﻳﻗﺔﮬﺪﺁﻳﺔ ﺁﻸﺫﻜﻴﺔ) commonly known as “Adhikiya” is the most important Sufi work in Arabic produced in Kerala. He wrote
an interpretation of the world-famous grammar book “Alfiyya” by Ibn Malik, Ibn al Wardie’s “Tuhfat”, and “Irshad” of
Ibn al Maqhari etc. are the
examples of his works.
Zainuddin Makhdum II was the first son of famous scholar ShaykhMuhammed
al Ghazzali, the third son of Zainudheen I. After his initial education at home
at the hand of his scholarly parents, Zainudheen enrolled at the Ponnani Juma
mosque’s daras (Mosque School) for further education. After completion of his
education in Kerala, Zainudheen set out to Makkah for his hajj and research.
About 10 years he lived in Masjid al Haram and received Ijazahs
from a number of eminent scholars of the time in various subjects and returned
to Ponnani to carry on the light of knowledge lit by his grandfather. He taught
at the Little Mecca of Malabar for 34 years, produced many legendary scholars
and wrote a lot of authoritative books like ‘Thuhfatul Mujahidin’(ﺘﺤﻓﮥ ﺍﻠﻤﺟﺍﮬﺪﻴﻦ ) and
world-famous Shafi’i law book of Fathual-Mu’een (ﻓﺘﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﻦ). He was
instrumental in starting of a centuries-long anti-colonial struggle in India as
he wrote extensively against Portuguese cruelties as well as induced the public
for waging battles against the colonisers in defence of their faith, honour and
land. Until the 20th century, Ponnani was the final authority of
Islam in Kerala. Its products were Khatheebs,Qadis, and Imams for entire
mosques and Muslim villages between Kayalpattanam in south and Mangalore in
north. It will take volumes of big books to write down the history of Makhdums
and their contributions to the Muslim society, and to the Kerala community in
general. The erudite tradition which had been nurtured by the Makhdum family of
Ponnani enriched the Arabic literature and nationalistic feeling of Kerala
Muslims. The Makhdums had a bright history in poem writing. Makhdum I was a
very famous as a poet. After the Makhdums there came hundreds of Arabic poets
in the coast who wrote wonderful poems.
Mamburam Sayed Alawi and his son Sayed Fadhl were the most important
figures descended from Ba Alavis family,[xxi]
both of whom were famous for their role in defending the region against British
colonisers. The former, who was born in Thareem of Yemen in 1166 AH and was
famous by the name of MamburamTangal, was a big reformer, who spent his whole
life for social service and to save the society from the clutches of British
cruelty. He wrote a book named ﭐﻟﺴﻴﻓﻞ ﺒﺗﺎﺮﻋﻟﻰ ﻣﻦ ﻳﻮﺁﻟﻰﭐﻟﻛﻓﺁﺮ'’, for inspiring the people against the colonial
aggressors. The MamburamTangals are known as the Ba Alavis in Muslim history.
The Tangals were great scholars and composed many ‘Fatwas”. In the 19th
century, they were the exponent of Islamic revivalism which expressed itself in
the form of Mappila outbreaks. Syed Fadal (1829-1901), alleged to be the sprit
behind the outbreaks, who was later exiled to Arabia due to his anti-British
attitudes, set up many mosques and religious institutions in Muslim villages
and played a leading role in awakening the community against the colonisers and
in reviving their deteriorating religiosity and piety.
Arab-Malayalam: The Mappila Language
The Muslim Arabs took up missionary works and strengthened their
contacts with the people of south India which led to the propagation of their
faith, culture and language in Kerala. A number of sounds in Arabic tongue do
not have corresponding phonic items in Malayalam. Out of 28 Arabic letters, 13
letters lack phonic equivalent in Malayalam. Even ‘Allahu’ and ‘Qur’an’ cannot
be translated without damage. This poses a major problem, and its gravity is
reinforced by the phonetic austerity of the Arabic tradition. Arab-Malayalam is
the Malayalam written in sophisticated Arabic script. It is a mixed language,
the result of contact between the languages of Kerala and Arabia. It followed
the grammar and syntax of Malayalam. But its vocabulary included words from
Arabic, Urudu and Tamil. It was written in Arabic script, with some new symbols
to denote unfamiliar Malayalam consonants. Without adequate training, no Arab
can read Arab-Malayalam.
Arab-Malayalam script can be taken, in a broad sense, to be the written
form of “Mappila Malayalam”. O. Abu, the author of Literary History of Arabic-Malayalam, opines that the script must
have existed for over 1000 years. The literature of Arab-Malayalam can be
divided into prose and poetry. It is customary to trace the beginning of
Arab-Malayalam verse to a work called Muhiyudin Mala.[xxii]MoyinkuttyVaidyar
is the most important figure in Arab-Malayalam literature.
Arab Malayalam may perhaps be little known outside Kerala. It is still
very much alive in Malabar. Books and periodicals are still being published in
big quantity. Surprisingly, even today it is the medium of instruction in about
10,000 religious schools around Kerala run by orthodox section of Muslims.
Majority of the people, who made use of this language, were Mappilas and hence
it came to be known as “Mappila Malayalam”.[xxiii]
Conclusion
The history of Kerala Muslims amply testifies
that an influential spiritual leadership has played a massive and tremendous
role in the spread of Islam in the state, and in the development and progress
of religious education as well as dissemination of religious knowledge.
Significant personalities, who emerged from Sayyed families, scholar community
and Sufi missionaries, alternatively or together without conflict, took the
community leadership and contributed substantially to the evolution of an
exemplary society. The Mappila constitute a peculiar Muslim community with a
distinct personality of its own. The distinct personality of the community with
its own customs and culture has afforded it very often a backward position. It
could be termed as a medieval society and as a result of the peculiar
socio-economic system that existed during the last decades, the out look of the
people became original and their minds were, to use the phraseology of a recent
writer, “fettered by orthodoxy and tradition, dogma and prejudice, insularity
and exclusiveness”. Here analyse the last six decades the development will find
that the symbol of medievalism is gradually disappearing. Modern and secular
life accepted by the Mappilas. Mainly as the result of modern educational
advancement superstitions and the age old praxis are disappearing, pragmatic
approach towards religion and beliefs based on scientific out look taking their
place. While looking back after about
six decades of independence, it is remarkable to see that Kerala Muslims have
achieved a lot and progressed more in comparison to their counterparts in other
parts of the country, thanks to a host of reasons like their active and
peaceful involvement in the state politics by becoming an influencing force,
better exposure to education, good adherence to the religion and cordial
existence with other religious communities. Miller sees Mappilas’ ability to
survive as a minority Islamic community under non-Muslim rule for more than ten
centuries and their conception of this period as the golden age of Kerala Islam
far from considering this an un-Islamic situation, as one of their outstanding
merit. While concluding his detailed study on Kerala Muslims, he said that ‘the
primary importance of the Mappilas for the Muslim world is the demonstration
that it is possible under the right circumstances for a Muslim community to
make necessary change’ without hampering the spirit of Islam.
References
[i] The ‘Mappila’ community was the result of the
union of Arab sailors and traders with the native women in Kerala. There are
various interpretations regarding the origin of the words like, ‘Maha’ (great), ‘Pillai’ (son) or ‘Ma’
(mother) ,etc., The term normally used for call the foreigners who settled for
the commerce in the coast. The word Mappila was firstly used by Duarte Barbosa,
a Portuguese traveller in his travelogue in 16th century. See more,
Roland E. Miller, Mappila Muslims of
Kerala- A Study in Islamic Trends, Madras, Orient Longman, 1976, pp.30-33.
[ii] The Arabs called the
coast of Kerala in early times as Malabar. The name was firstly used by Al
–Idirisi. Elliot’s History of India,
Vol.I, p.90
[iii] For details ,see
Gabriel Sheffer(ed.), Modern Diasporas in International Politics,
London, Sydney, Croom Helm,1986,p.3. ; See Also Ho, Engseng, The Graves of Tarim: Genaeologyof Mobility
across Indian Ocean , Berkley, Los Angeles, London, 2006
[iv] A. Cohen, Cultural Strategies in the Organizations of Trading
Diasporas, London, 1971
[v] The Hadramis are the
Arab migrants of Hadhramaut area of Yemen region; they are the major group who
settled in Malabar from Arabian coasts.
[vi]SayelZaki Hamid
Khatabeh, India’s Foreign Policy and the
Arab World, Printwell, Jaipur, 1993,p.4
[vii]MaqbulAhmad.S, India and the Arab World: proceeding of
the seminar on India and the Arab world,
ICCR, New Delhi, 1969,p.38
[viii]DR MuhammedZaki. Ed. Arab Account of India During the
14th Century, Delhi, 2009,p.5
[ix] Holy Qur’an, 76:5,
76:17, 83:26. The words are referred in the Holy Book while describing the
refreshment given to the right believers who entered in the JannāthulFirdouse.
Syed SulaimanNadwi, Arab – O- Hind- Ke- Taa’lluqat,
(trans.), M. Salahudheen, Hyderabad, 1962, p.32
[x]Otto Spies, An Arab Account of India in the 14th
Century, Jamia Press, New Delhi,1935,p.3
[xi]Asghar
Ali Engineer, Kerala Muslims a historical
Perspective, New Delhi,1995,p.2
[xii]S.F.
Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian
Frontier, The Mappilas of Malabar 1498-1922, Oxford, 1980,p.8.
[xiii] C.A.Innes,
Madras District Gazetteers: Malabar and
Anjengo, Madras,1908,p.190
[xiv] The lower caste
preserves a particular distance from the upper one. Cheruman Keep a distance of
72 feet from a Nambuthiri and a Pulaya 32 feet etc.
[xv] Roland E. Miller,
op.cit., p.21
[xvi] Prof. U.Muhammad,
Educational Empowerment of Kerala
Muslims: A Socio-Historical Perspective, Other Books, 2007, p.
[xvii]MuhammedHusaynNainar S. Tr&Ed., Tuhfatai-Mujahidin fi b’adahwal al-
purtukaliyyin of Zayn al-Din al Ma’bari, Other Books, Calicut, 2006, pp.14-15
[xviii] C.K. Kareem, 1991
[xix]Dr.HussainRandathani,
MakhdoomumPonnaniyum: Historical Studies,
Mal., Ponnani Juma Masjid Committee, 2010,p.114
[xx]Prof.
K.V. Abdurahiman, “Ponnani- A brief historical Survey”, Article in M.E.S.
Ponnano College Souvenir,p.15
[xxi] Syed Jifri was the
uncle of Mamburamthangals
[xxii] Composing by Qazi
Muhammed in A.D 1607
[xxiii]Prof.
Syed Mohideen Shah, Islam in Kerala, The
Muslim Educational Association, Trichur, 1972,p.7
അഭിപ്രായങ്ങള്