Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi

Arab Diaspora and the Development of Mappilas in South India: A Socio-ReligiousPerception

                                                      Dr. Jayafarali .Alichethu

Faculty, DGMMES Mampad College

Introduction

The historically misapprehended culturally differenced ‘Mappila’[i]Muslims of Kerala are a little known community in Indian subcontinent, though ‘Malabari’[ii] is more familiar in the Islamic world. Since the dawn of Islam in Arabia in the 7^th century A.D, the believers carried on the proselytization and the promulgation of the religion along with their maritime activities in different parts of the world. The Muslim community steadily arose in Kerala over centuries through these maritime ties, initially the religious conversion and nuptial alliance of the Arab traders with the native women in the coast. The migration of the Arab Sayyeds and Sufis to the south-western coasts of India triggered a rapid change in the Muslim community of the land. The settlement of the Sayyid families from the Arab world in early centuries moulded a virtuous Arab settlement in South India.

Before proceeding let me define our term diaspora, in its wider sense is defined as “ethnic minority groups of migrant origin residing and acting in host countries or regions, but maintaining strong sentimental and material links with their countries of origin”. The term used to refer to any group of migrants and their descendants who maintained a link with their place of origin”.[iii]The concept of ‘trade diaspora’ was introduced by Abner Cohen in 1971 to describe the interrelated commercial network of ‘nation of socially interdependent, but spatially dispersed communities’[iv]The question of identity maintenance is very debatable in contemporary literature on the Arabian Diasporas around the Indian Ocean because the Hadramis themselves have maintained a dual identity based on relative degree of their assimilation into the host societies and preservation of some of their cultural values and biological descent.  SayyidFaridAlatas discerns the Hadrami[v] diaspora around the Indian Ocean as “transnational, not ethnic, but was based on kinship and its locus was nasab (lineage) which formed the basis of a uniquely Hadrami type of asabiyya (family spirit)”. The main impetus to Muslim settlement came from the merchants of the Persian Gulf and Oman, with a minority from Hadaramouth. There appear to be two major differences from the Jewish Diaspora and the Muslim settlement. There was no hankering for a homeland or a promised land, which characterized the Jewish Diaspora. Muslims in Malabar Coast maintained their distinctive faith, but otherwise were part of the Malabar people. In Malabar, the fate of the Arab-Muslim communities was very different from that of those in other part of India. Since they were never exposed to northern conquest they could retain their Arab imprint through the ages.

Arab trade Diaspora in India: A Retrospect

Unlike the Romans, the Muslim traders who came to South India settled down permanently. The community which developed here and which later became known as the
Mappilas of Malabar.The Arab world as well as India was the cradles of ancient civilization for near about 6000 years ago. The Nile Delta civilization of Egypt, the Euphrates River civilisation in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley civilization in India were not only contemporaneous, but were also in close contact with one-another[vi]. Indian and Arab civilizations had interacted with each-other and have drawn inspiration from each-other. The Indo-Arab trade relations date back to the third millennium B.C.[vii]The Arabs who held the monopoly of the inter-continental trade (Asia, Europe and Africa) in the ancient as well as the medieval times had been visiting the coastal cities of India, Ceylon and China and all Islands scattered over the vast ocean long before the rise of Islam.[viii] Besides Indian products, Indian philosophy and religion have been of interest to the travellers throughout the ages. A large number of Arabic words on Indian origin show the antiquity and consistency of Indo-Arab trade. Even in Holy Quran three words of Indian origin, i.e., misk, (musk), zanjabil (ginger), and kafur (camphor)are used.[ix]The coast and Islands of India have always attracted Arab merchants and travellers who undertook the voyages mainly for the sake of trade. So the commercial routes and the sea-coasts of India well known to the Arabs long before the inner parts of India became accessible to them.[x]

The rise of Islam, however, ushered in a new era in the Indo-Arab relations. The penetration of Islam into India by persuasion had long before it was in a position to use force.  Indian ethos has liberally accommodated other faiths which penetrated the subcontinent at different points of time in history. The geographical contiguity of Arabia to the traditional coast of Malabar by sea had made her an effective partner in a flourishing sea-born trade through centuries. In early periods, Kerala held an important position on the trading map of the ancient world. They did not enter as conquerors or rulers and they were never seen as aggressors. Thus the history of Muslims in Kerala is very different from that of Muslims in the North[xi].  Not only the political hegemony and tradition of the latter, but also its emotional tenor, theological growth, and cultural heritage passed the Mappilas by. The original relationship with Arabia, on the other hand, continued and grew, and that intercourse has gone on into modern times. The Arab affinity has affected and continues to affect the language, religion and culture of the Mappilas more profoundly than those of any other Indian Muslims do.

 In contrast to all other parts of Indian Muslims, who belong to the Hanafi sect, Kerala Muslims observe the Shafi’i school of law, which was and still is the predominant madhab in the Muslim communities throughout the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asian region. According to S.F. Dale,[xii] the study of Malayali Muslims offers a relevant guide to understanding certain facets of South East Asian Islam during the European period. The ecology of Kerala is itself more nearly similar to South-East Asia than most regions of the South Asian subcontinent, and in terms of their Arab-derived Islamic culture and long history of conflict with European powers, Malayali Muslims are more nearly similar to several of the Islamic communities of South-East Asia, which originated as trading settlements.

Islamic Community and its Developments on the Southern Coasts

When the Arab traders settled here, the local rulers were extremely helpful and hospitable to them. The Zamorin of Calicut, who was one of the chief patrons of Arab trade, is said to have encouraged conversion to Islam. Most of the travelogues had praised the remorseful honesty showed by the king. In order to man the Arab ships on which he depended for his aggrandisement, and to have ordered that every family of fishermen in his dominion one or more of the male members should be brought up as Muhammedance.[xiii] The member of the Hindu community maintained a very friendly relationship with Muslims. There was no bar for willing members to embrace the new religion in the land. 

Malabar was the most conservative part of southern India where the cast system was in its full form. The vast mass of low and down-trodden community in Kerala such as Cherumas, Pulayas, Pariah, Mukkuvas, etc. could not come closer to upper class but they had to keep certain distance called Ayitham.[xiv] Thus the conversion to Islam gave to low caste a new status. The universal brotherhood of man preached and practised by Islam was an unusual experience for the down trodden beings. Not only would Mappila treat them with equality but in their new social position Mappila forcefulness would compel their formal masters to deal with them in a new way.[xv] The most significant reason behind wide acceptances of Islam in the land was the social and economic backwardness of the native tribes who had been living a life of slavery under the rigid yoke of the high class Hindus for many centuries. The moment they got converted, they were able to forget their stigma and acquire a ‘vitalizing social status always tantamount to equality with others.[xvi]

Malik Bin Dinar: A Pioneering Arab Proselytizer in Malabar

Analysing the various historical perceptions, it is generally assumed that though Islam arrived in Kerala as early as fifth Hijrah year, the formation of a Muslim community started after Malik Bin Dinar and his group landed in port of Muziris (Cranganore or Kodungalur) in 21 AH (641 AD). One can easily assume that the initial missionary group of Malik Bin Dinar and his companions would have engaged in educating the new entrants about the religion.

 In fact, most of the important Sufi Thareeqas that led a spiritual revivalism in the Islamic world starting from the deteriorating phase of its golden period had reached Kerala and attracted many people. Besides, according to one opinion, Malik Bin Dinar, the first missionary leader arrived in Kerala, was a disciple of the famous Sufi, Hasan al-Basari who died in 130 AD. However, only scanty information is available about the Sufi activity in Kerala during the early period, and the available Arabic works, being mainly on theology, have completely ignored their ideologies and activities. This has made scholars like I.H. Qureshi to assert that, “the extensive Sufi missionary activity found elsewhere in Indian Islam is not evident in South India”.

 The group established the first mosque in India at Kodungallur.[xvii]Later they travelled north and south of the state and attracted a number of locals to the new religion within a small timeframe through entirely peaceful means, and set up mosques in different parts of the state like Quilon, Chaliyam, Pantalyini, Dharmadam, Srikantapuram, Madayi, Kasarkod Mangalore and Barkur. According to RihlatulMilūk, they had built about 18 mosques in places between Quilon in South and Mangalore in North. At all the places, they appointed a q̄azi and Imam to lead the prayer, mediate in the social matters of the newly emerged community as well as to engage in educational activities. It is notable that all the nine places where mosques were erected were either the headquarters of the petty potentates of the country or places affording facilities for trade. Arabs engaged in trade had no doubt settled in these places long previously. Malik Bin Dinar and his party, even with the exceptional advantages they possessed, would hardly have been able in so short a time to found and establish mosques at these places, unless the ground had been prepared beforehand for them to some extent at least. And the fact that Arabs had settled for trading purposes carries with it the further probable assumption that some of them at least had contracted alliances with women of the country, and the beginning of a mixed race, the Mappilas, had been laid. 

Scholastically Arabs and the Wisdom of Mappila community

Muslim education is in a sense as old as their faith in religion. The very first surah of Qur’an was revealed to Prophet (PBUH) with the message, “Read in the name of Lord who created man from a clot of blood.” (Holy Qur’an: 96-1, 2). It is a historical fact that the Muslims had been the torch-bearers of knowledge during the Middle Ages between 6^th century to 15^th century. In Kerala, the early Arab missionary delegation not only built mosques but also prepared the primary facilities needed for the upbringing of an Islamic community at each of the places. Each and every mosque stood as learning centres in the same way Prophet’s mosque in Madina did. In addition to this, gradually there formed a group of students in each mosque, who were dedicated to specialise in Qura’n, Hadith and related Islamic subjects in order to carry out further propagation activities. Missionaries and religious teachers taught adults and Muslim youths Arabic and Islamic studies. Detailed and explorative studies about the early mosques built in Kerala can shed more lights on the content, curricula and organisation of the religious educational system in this initial period. Sources clearly point out the existence of many higher education centres in early Kerala mosques, especially in the coastal cities. Highly qualified teachers had attracted hundreds of students to Mosque schools they held in masjids of Kodungallur, Quilon, Calicut, Ponnani, Chaliyam and Tanur. Traces of their history in its early periods seem difficult. It is said that a mosque school more than eight hundred years old was held in the ValiyaKulangaraPalli at Tanur, where eminent scholars from Yemen, Egypt, Hadharmouth, Hijaz had conducted classes.

Emerging Arab Diaspora in Malabar

After the traders, the Sufis themselves migrated to Malabar as has been noted. The Arabs who settled on the Malabar Coast are those of different Arabian lands. They are never recluses or ascetics; they engaged in their profession and took service to man as on injunction of Sufism. Traditional history talks about a number of eminent scholars or scholarly families who migrated to Kerala from across the Islamic world like Makkah, Madina, Samarqand, Bukhara, Yemen, Kufa, Basra and Constantinople, and engaged in Islamic propagation activities as well as ran prestigious educational centres at different Kerala mosques. Around 30 SayyedQabilas had reached Kerala from different parts of the Islamic world, mainly from Yemen and Bukhara. Malabar Muslims as well as non-Muslim rulers of Kerala received them happily and, in most cases, they were gifted lands and houses. Many rose to the fame through their leadership qualities as many of them were big scholars, sheikhs or Mureeds of Sufi thareeqas, or influential and pious umara. The indigenous Muslim society also produced a number of legendary scholars who travelled to the premier learning centres of the medieval Islamic history like Mecca, Medina, Baghdad, Damascus and Cairo where they met eminent scholars of the time, studied great Islamic literature and took part in the development of religious education back home

The scholarly families from Arab countries used to come here frequently and settled in Malabar. They were especially from the ‘AhlulByth’ (descent from the family of Prophet (PBUH)) known as ‘Thangals’ in Kerala, namedlike ‘Shihab’s’, ‘Jifri’s’, ‘Aydaroos’, ‘Ba faqih’s, ‘Ba Alavi’s’, ‘Jamalullai’lis’, ‘Alubar’amis’,’ Aideeds’, ‘Muqaibils’, ‘Musaavas’, ‘Mash’hoors’, ‘AluSilli’, ‘AluSathiri’, ‘AluHabshi’, ‘Haddadis’, ‘Saq’qafis’, ‘AlulHadi’ and ‘MoulaDhaweela' etc. Some of them were entrusted with the Islamic propagation and lead the Mappilas communities in all facets. Many families settled in Kerala in different periods, but unfortunately very rare details are available historically about them.

Socio-Cultural contribution of Arab scholarly Lineage to the Mappila life

Even mentioning of the Kerala Islamic history is unable without remembering the Makhdum family who served the Muslim society with their unique scholarship and leadership for almost five centuries starting from 15^th century. The roots of the Makhdum family were in Maʹbar, in Yemen. The family descended from Shaykh Ahmed Mabʹar, the brother of Ali bin Muhammed Makhdum, who migrated to Kayalpattanam, a coast in Tamil Nadu,from Yemen. The family arrived at Cochin in the early ninth century..[xviii] After completion of his higher education which was available in Kerala, Zainuddin Makhdum I, son of Ali Makhdum, started his journey for seeking the knowledge in different Islamic states like Mecca, Medina, and Egypt and acquired specialised knowledge in various Islamic subjects like Tafsir, Hadith literature and Tasawwuf, etc. On his return from the Arab world, Zainudheen settled in Ponnani and erected a ‘Jama Mosque’ and set up a world-class Islamic learning centre there.[xix]Arabic language as well as literature is being taught here from primary level to the research level. The advent of the Makhdums Ponnani came to be known as the ‘Little Makkah of Malabar’ and Zainudheen I is highly esteemed as the founder of the great seat of Arabic learning at Ponnani.[xx]   He has written a number of books in Arabic including Murhsid al-thullab (ﻣﺮﺷﺪ ﺁﻟﻄﻸﺏ), HidayathulAdhkiyaIlaTariqat al Awliyaﺍﻷﻮﻠﻴﺄ) ﺇﻻﻄﺮﻳﻗﺔﮬﺪﺁﻳﺔ ﺁﻸﺫﻜﻴﺔ) commonly known as “Adhikiya” is the most important Sufi work in Arabic produced in Kerala. He wrote an interpretation of the world-famous grammar book “Alfiyya” by Ibn Malik, Ibn al Wardie’s “Tuhfat”, and “Irshad” of Ibn al Maqhari etc. are the examples of his works.

Zainuddin Makhdum II was the first son of famous scholar ShaykhMuhammed al Ghazzali, the third son of Zainudheen I. After his initial education at home at the hand of his scholarly parents, Zainudheen enrolled at the Ponnani Juma mosque’s daras (Mosque School) for further education. After completion of his education in Kerala, Zainudheen set out to Makkah for his hajj and research. About 10 years he lived in Masjid al Haram and received Ijazahs from a number of eminent scholars of the time in various subjects and returned to Ponnani to carry on the light of knowledge lit by his grandfather. He taught at the Little Mecca of Malabar for 34 years, produced many legendary scholars and wrote a lot of authoritative books like ‘Thuhfatul Mujahidin’(ﺘﺤﻓﮥ ﺍﻠﻤﺟﺍﮬﺪﻴﻦ ) and world-famous Shafi’i law book of Fathual-Mu’een (ﻓﺘﺡ ﺍﻟﻤﻐﻴﻦ). He was instrumental in starting of a centuries-long anti-colonial struggle in India as he wrote extensively against Portuguese cruelties as well as induced the public for waging battles against the colonisers in defence of their faith, honour and land. Until the 20^th century, Ponnani was the final authority of Islam in Kerala. Its products were Khatheebs,Qadis, and Imams for entire mosques and Muslim villages between Kayalpattanam in south and Mangalore in north. It will take volumes of big books to write down the history of Makhdums and their contributions to the Muslim society, and to the Kerala community in general. The erudite tradition which had been nurtured by the Makhdum family of Ponnani enriched the Arabic literature and nationalistic feeling of Kerala Muslims. The Makhdums had a bright history in poem writing. Makhdum I was a very famous as a poet. After the Makhdums there came hundreds of Arabic poets in the coast who wrote wonderful poems.

Mamburam Sayed Alawi and his son Sayed Fadhl were the most important figures descended from Ba Alavis family,[xxi] both of whom were famous for their role in defending the region against British colonisers. The former, who was born in Thareem of Yemen in 1166 AH and was famous by the name of MamburamTangal, was a big reformer, who spent his whole life for social service and to save the society from the clutches of British cruelty. He wrote a book named ﭐﻟﺴﻴﻓﻞ ﺒﺗﺎﺮﻋﻟﻰ ﻣﻦ ﻳﻮﺁﻟﻰﭐﻟﻛﻓﺁﺮ'’, for inspiring the people against the colonial aggressors. The MamburamTangals are known as the Ba Alavis in Muslim history. The Tangals were great scholars and composed many ‘Fatwas”. In the 19^th century, they were the exponent of Islamic revivalism which expressed itself in the form of Mappila outbreaks. Syed Fadal (1829-1901), alleged to be the sprit behind the outbreaks, who was later exiled to Arabia due to his anti-British attitudes, set up many mosques and religious institutions in Muslim villages and played a leading role in awakening the community against the colonisers and in reviving their deteriorating religiosity and piety.

Arab-Malayalam: The Mappila Language

The Muslim Arabs took up missionary works and strengthened their contacts with the people of south India which led to the propagation of their faith, culture and language in Kerala. A number of sounds in Arabic tongue do not have corresponding phonic items in Malayalam. Out of 28 Arabic letters, 13 letters lack phonic equivalent in Malayalam. Even ‘Allahu’ and ‘Qur’an’ cannot be translated without damage. This poses a major problem, and its gravity is reinforced by the phonetic austerity of the Arabic tradition. Arab-Malayalam is the Malayalam written in sophisticated Arabic script. It is a mixed language, the result of contact between the languages of Kerala and Arabia. It followed the grammar and syntax of Malayalam. But its vocabulary included words from Arabic, Urudu and Tamil. It was written in Arabic script, with some new symbols to denote unfamiliar Malayalam consonants. Without adequate training, no Arab can read Arab-Malayalam.

Arab-Malayalam script can be taken, in a broad sense, to be the written form of “Mappila Malayalam”. O. Abu, the author of Literary History of Arabic-Malayalam, opines that the script must have existed for over 1000 years. The literature of Arab-Malayalam can be divided into prose and poetry. It is customary to trace the beginning of Arab-Malayalam verse to a work called Muhiyudin Mala.[xxii]MoyinkuttyVaidyar is the most important figure in Arab-Malayalam literature.

Arab Malayalam may perhaps be little known outside Kerala. It is still very much alive in Malabar. Books and periodicals are still being published in big quantity. Surprisingly, even today it is the medium of instruction in about 10,000 religious schools around Kerala run by orthodox section of Muslims. Majority of the people, who made use of this language, were Mappilas and hence it came to be known as “Mappila Malayalam”.[xxiii]

Conclusion  

 The history of Kerala Muslims amply testifies that an influential spiritual leadership has played a massive and tremendous role in the spread of Islam in the state, and in the development and progress of religious education as well as dissemination of religious knowledge. Significant personalities, who emerged from Sayyed families, scholar community and Sufi missionaries, alternatively or together without conflict, took the community leadership and contributed substantially to the evolution of an exemplary society. The Mappila constitute a peculiar Muslim community with a distinct personality of its own. The distinct personality of the community with its own customs and culture has afforded it very often a backward position. It could be termed as a medieval society and as a result of the peculiar socio-economic system that existed during the last decades, the out look of the people became original and their minds were, to use the phraseology of a recent writer, “fettered by orthodoxy and tradition, dogma and prejudice, insularity and exclusiveness”. Here analyse the last six decades the development will find that the symbol of medievalism is gradually disappearing. Modern and secular life accepted by the Mappilas. Mainly as the result of modern educational advancement superstitions and the age old praxis are disappearing, pragmatic approach towards religion and beliefs based on scientific out look taking their place. While looking back after about six decades of independence, it is remarkable to see that Kerala Muslims have achieved a lot and progressed more in comparison to their counterparts in other parts of the country, thanks to a host of reasons like their active and peaceful involvement in the state politics by becoming an influencing force, better exposure to education, good adherence to the religion and cordial existence with other religious communities. Miller sees Mappilas’ ability to survive as a minority Islamic community under non-Muslim rule for more than ten centuries and their conception of this period as the golden age of Kerala Islam far from considering this an un-Islamic situation, as one of their outstanding merit. While concluding his detailed study on Kerala Muslims, he said that ‘the primary importance of the Mappilas for the Muslim world is the demonstration that it is possible under the right circumstances for a Muslim community to make necessary change’ without hampering the spirit of Islam.

References

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[i] The ‘Mappila’ community was the result of the union of Arab sailors and traders with the native women in Kerala. There are various interpretations regarding the origin of the words like, ‘Maha’ (great), ‘Pillai’ (son) or ‘Ma’ (mother) ,etc., The term normally used for call the foreigners who settled for the commerce in the coast. The word Mappila was firstly used by Duarte Barbosa, a Portuguese traveller in his travelogue in 16^th century. See more, Roland E. Miller, Mappila Muslims of Kerala- A Study in Islamic Trends, Madras, Orient Longman, 1976, pp.30-33.

[ii] The Arabs called the coast of Kerala in early times as Malabar. The name was firstly used by Al –Idirisi. Elliot’s History of India, Vol.I, p.90

[iii] For details ,see Gabriel Sheffer(ed.),  Modern Diasporas in International Politics, London, Sydney, Croom Helm,1986,p.3. ; See Also Ho, Engseng, The Graves of Tarim: Genaeologyof Mobility across Indian Ocean , Berkley, Los Angeles, London, 2006

[iv] A. Cohen, Cultural Strategies in the Organizations of Trading Diasporas, London, 1971

[v] The Hadramis are the Arab migrants of Hadhramaut area of Yemen region; they are the major group who settled in Malabar from Arabian coasts.

[vi]SayelZaki Hamid Khatabeh, India’s Foreign Policy and the Arab World, Printwell, Jaipur, 1993,p.4

[vii]MaqbulAhmad.S, India and the Arab World: proceeding of the seminar on India and the Arab world,  ICCR, New Delhi, 1969,p.38

[viii]DR MuhammedZaki. Ed. Arab Account of India During the 14^th Century, Delhi, 2009,p.5

[ix] Holy Qur’an, 76:5, 76:17, 83:26. The words are referred in the Holy Book while describing the refreshment given to the right believers who entered in the JannāthulFirdouse. Syed SulaimanNadwi, Arab – O- Hind- Ke- Taa’lluqat, (trans.), M. Salahudheen, Hyderabad, 1962, p.32

[x]Otto Spies, An Arab Account of India in the 14^th Century, Jamia Press, New Delhi,1935,p.3

[xi]Asghar Ali Engineer, Kerala Muslims a historical Perspective, New Delhi,1995,p.2

[xii]S.F. Dale, Islamic Society on the South Asian Frontier, The Mappilas of Malabar 1498-1922, Oxford, 1980,p.8.

[xiii] C.A.Innes, Madras District Gazetteers: Malabar and Anjengo, Madras,1908,p.190

[xiv] The lower caste preserves a particular distance from the upper one. Cheruman Keep a distance of 72 feet from a Nambuthiri and a Pulaya 32 feet etc.

[xv] Roland E. Miller, op.cit., p.21

[xvi] Prof. U.Muhammad, Educational Empowerment of Kerala Muslims: A Socio-Historical Perspective, Other Books,   2007, p.

[xvii]MuhammedHusaynNainar S. Tr&Ed., Tuhfatai-Mujahidin fi b’adahwal al- purtukaliyyin of Zayn al-Din al Ma’bari, Other Books, Calicut, 2006, pp.14-15

[xviii] C.K. Kareem, 1991

[xix]Dr.HussainRandathani, MakhdoomumPonnaniyum: Historical Studies, Mal., Ponnani Juma Masjid Committee, 2010,p.114

[xx]Prof. K.V. Abdurahiman, “Ponnani- A brief historical Survey”, Article in M.E.S. Ponnano College Souvenir,p.15

[xxi] Syed Jifri was the uncle of Mamburamthangals

[xxii] Composing by Qazi Muhammed in A.D 1607

[xxiii]Prof. Syed Mohideen Shah, Islam in Kerala, The Muslim Educational Association, Trichur, 1972,p.7